EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES

Whether we teach courses in mathematics, science, English, or forestry, one of our goals as instructors is to provide students with opportunities to become active, critical thinkers who move beyond a view of learning as information-gathering to a view of learning as knowledge-building. Real learning is transformative. It changes the nature of what is learned because it involves the learner's ability to synthesize, evaluate, and accommodate new information into old systems of knowledge.
We provide here a selection of strategies that encourage students' critical thinking, foster a sense of learning community, and empower students as learners.
For each of these strategies, we have included a brief description, a vignette to further illustrate how this might look in a class you might teach, and several resources you might choose to take a look at which further elucidate the issues.
1. Structured Controversy

Using structured controversy in the classroom can take many forms. In its most typical form, you select a specific problem (the closer the problem is to multiple issues central to the course the better), it involves providing students with a limited amount of background information and asking them to construct an argument based on this information. This they do by working in groups (and so, it is not unlike the cooperative learning strategy described below).
Let's imagine that you are teaching an undergraduate course in medical ethics. You are about to deal with issues surrounding the problem of organ donation. You introduce the topic briefly, perhaps providing students with essential background concerning, for example, the cost of different types of organ transplants, the availability of donor organs, the probability of success for transplantation of different organs, institutional constraints, etc. Then you set up the following situation: four individuals are on the list of potential recipients of a donor liver. One of these is a white male, 55 years old and a recovering alcoholic; another is a former teacher, 42 years old, married with two young children; the third is a 25-year old prostitute with a history of drug abuse; and the fourth is a 17-year old high school honors student who has just been offered a scholarship at an ivy-league university. A viable liver has now become available. Each of your students is assigned to a group, each of which represents a member of of the hospital medical ethics review board. The job of the board is to decide which of the potential recipients should receive the donor organ. These groups include:

1.Clergy
2.Surgeon
3.Insurance company representative
4.family member
5.past recipient of donor liver
6.Chair of the hospital's Board of Directors
Each of these groups will receive a fact sheet providing them with information that they may choose to use in the development of their argument.
After the students have the opportunity (both in and out of class) to develop and present these arguments, it would be useful to have them all write about what factors they feel are important to weigh in making decisions such as these and what they learned from engaging in the process.

Some useful references include:
Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, R.T. (1988). "Critical thinking through structured controversy." Educational Leadership, 58-64.
Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Getting Students to Ask the Questions
Instructors traditionally ask the majority of questions as a way of getting students to think about course content or demonstrate their knowledge of the material. The typical pattern is:
I - Initiation of the question by the instructor
R - Response of student
E - Evaluation of response by the instructor

In this questioning pattern, it is the instructor who does most of the cognitive work. To turn this around, you will want to get students to ask the questions, to make the cognitive connections, to evaluate ideas and reponses-their own as well as those of their peers and the instructor.

2. Vignettes

1. Before assigning an article on gender differences in the use of language, one instructor asked the students, who were divided into pairs, together to list what they knew about how women and men use language differently. After ten minutes of pair discussion and jotting down what they perceived as differences in language use, she asked them to go back over their list and check off those items that they were certain about and to put question marks next to those they were uncertain of. Then they were sent off to read the article for the next class period and to evaluate their responses in light of the information presented in the article. In the following class period, the members of each pair compared their notes and responses and then presented their reponses within the full class discussion. In effect, the students were raising the questions and evaluating each other's and their own responses, along with those of their classmates, as they compared them to the article information. Furthermore, they more readily critiqued the author's information in light of their own knowledge and experience. They were the ones making the connections, evaluating the responses, and doing the cognitive work in the class.

2. Note takers in a natural resources seminar were asked to use a dialectical journal format in which half of their notes recorded information and the other half responded to and raised questions about the lecture information.
Content Notes: Personal Analytical Comments:
"Just the facts!" Why is this information important?
Identify the speaker's thesis How is it related to your own main
. points and major experience?
Conclusions mind? (1) What questions does it raise in your

Such journals actively involve students with the subject matter by asking them to reflect on it, and they also provide raw material for finished papers and for small group or whole class discussions.

Some useful references include:
Brown, M. Neil. 1986. Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Meyers, Chet. 1986. Teaching Students to Think Critically. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, Leonora H. and Jeffrey Charnley, eds. 1990. Project Write Source Book.
Department of American Thought and Language, Michigan State University.
Are you curious about the answers to the following questions?
1.My students just spew back what I tell them in class, but they don't seem to want to THINK about issues. How can I get them more involved?
2.What kinds of students am I likely to have in my classes at MSU? What are the demographics of the MSU student body?
3.Two or three students dominate our discussions, and the rest of them seemed to be turned off by them. How can I control this more carefully to make it possible for others to discuss?
4.What are the departmental and university requirements that I must meet in order to fulfill my obligations as an MSU teaching assistant?
5.I hate multiple choice exams. What other choices are there for evaluating and grading the work my students do?

6.I want to show one or two videotapes or films this semester. What media resources are available on campus?

7.I have a deaf student in my class who needs special help. Which office on campus do I contact?
8.Some of my students need help with their writing. What kind of help is available?
9.One of my students has confided that she thinks she is the victim of sexual harrassment in one of her classes. To whom should I send her to discuss her options?

10.I know I should have my students do more writing. How can I do that without feeling overwhelmed by the paperwork?

If you'd like answers to these questions, check out the new Handbook for Teaching Assistants at MSU.

3. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning (sometimes called collaborative learning, which is probably a more accurate term) can be described as learning which occurs as a result of interactions between members of a collective (meaning two of more individuals). In classrooms, learning-related tasks we are most familiar with are laboratory groups in science classes where pairs of students work together to carry out an experiment, although in many cases, this does not represent true collaboration, but rather compartmentalization of work so that individuals do not have a complete understanding of all concepts involved, or inequitable distribution of effort, in which one student does most of the work but also understands more. A critical component of cooperative learning is division of labor by consent, within-group explanations, and sharing of information in equitable ways. Another critical prerequisite for success is the setting up of rewards for both the group and for individuals within the group; that is, each student must feel as though their contribution to the group and their individual contributions will be rewarded.

What might this look like when enacted in your classroom? Let's say, for example, that you are teaching a large lecture course in organismal biology . You might divide the class into groups of 4-5 and provide them with one of the topics or concepts which you will be dealing with in the coming weeks. Each group's job is to provide the rest of the class with an overview of that topic or concept in whatever form they would like. The conditions which must be met are the following: first, each group member must participate; second, the presentation or product must reveal the contribution of each group member; third, grading will consist of a group grade, as well as individual grades, the latter being based on a written product each group member turns in and which reflects their own contribution to the final presentation or product. What does this do for you? It allows you to structure the way a topic is introduced to the class and to link topics or concepts across the semester. Second, it provides students with additional investment in the course. Third, particularly in large classes, it allows students to get to know fairly well at least some other students taking the course. You can choose to alter the groups as the semester progresses, but it's critical to allow students the opportunity to periodically let you know privately how they perceive things in their group are going. Cooperative learning strategies can be extended to homework assignments and other performance assessments (e.g., tests) in which you allow students to work in these groups on particular questions. But again, it is probably wise to include questions that must be answered individually on a test as well. Cooperative learning also can be used in the writing process, where students meet regularly in groups to develop a research proposal. Here they can develop ideas and shape their writing via peer editing and several other group-based strategies.

Some useful references include:
Bonwell, C. C., and Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, D.C.:
George Washington University School of Education and Human Development.
Johnson, R. T., Johnson, D. W., and Smith, K. A. (1990). Cooperative learning:
An active learning strategy for the college classroom. Baylor Educator, 15, 11-16.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., and Smith, K. A. (1991). Cooperative Learning:
Increasing College Faculty Instructional Productivity. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.4. Washington, D.C.: George Washington University School of Education and Human Development.
Tiberius, R. G. (1990). Small Group Teaching: A Trouble-Shooting Guide.
Toronto: OISE Press.

Related reading of value:
Tannen, Deborah. (1991). "Teachers' classroom strategies should recognize that men and women use language differently." Chronicle of Higher Education 37 (40)

4. Instructor Knowledge

Effective teachers exhibit a breadth of knowledge, bring information together from a variety of sources, analyze concepts effectively, and stay up to date in their specialty.
Many new TAs assume that they can teach Math 10l because they took one course in statistics and two in quantitative analysis. However, an in-depth understanding of the subject is often necessary for dealing with the bright, inquisitive student who asks a relevant question that is not covered in the text: "Why didn't you use that same formula to solve the last problem?" Ideally, you will be assigned to a course in the area of your particular expertise, but you should still review material to refresh your memory, and you might try explaining it to someone else as a way of anticipating student questions and problems.

Just how you present your knowledge will depend on your approach to teaching in general, but the strongest advantage you have over a textbook is in revealing your thought processes to the students. Demonstrate and share your thinking so that students get a sense of what it means to think like a psychologist or a chemist or an art historian and tackle problems in the discipline. Highlight significant concepts. Discuss current developments and their effect on present theory. For quiz sections, laboratories or studios that are extensions of larger classes, it is especially important for you to be knowledgeable about the content being presented in the large class lectures and for you to be able to talk knowledgeably about the professor's expectations. In many departments you will be expected to attend the professor's lecture to ensure that you are comfortable discussing the content.

As you attempt to be responsive to student needs, it's important that you try not to oversimplify. There is sometimes a tendency for TAs to summarize what students "need to know" from a course rather than invite them into the discipline and into academic inquiry as a process.
If you must teach outside your specialty, you'll have to work to stay at least a week ahead of your brightest students. Remember that you are not responsible for knowing all the answers, so don't feel compelled to apologize for your "lack of knowledge." If you cannot answer a question or you have made an error, admit it, but tell your students where they may find the answer or offer to look it up-and then do it.
Your third step will be to determine through evaluation procedures whether students have learned what you intended. Ideally, procedures for evaluation should be consistent with course goals and teaching strategies. For examples of ways to teach beyond the lecture approach, see the "Active Learning" section of this handbook. The mode of instruction, the course content, assignments, and examinations should all focus students' attention in a single direction.

5. Interactional Skills

Effective teachers interact with students in a skillful manner. They are generally able to:
Establish a rapport with the class. Most students learn better when they are relaxed, confident and not feeling threatened. A comfortable atmosphere makes learning more enjoyable and encourages individuality and creativity. Nurture this atmosphere by remaining approachable, keeping your office hours, and encouraging students to visit during that time. An important thing to remember is that as an instructor your response and comments carry great weight. When a student asks a question, respond with respect. You need not spend five minutes answering an irrelevant question, but you can still be courteous by offering to discuss the matter with the student after class.
Be open to student questions. Students appreciate it when TAs are open to questions and willing to answer questions. It is important, then, to encourage students to ask questions and help them to learn to frame questions that get the kinds of information they need in order to learn. If you watch your students instead of the chalkboard or your notes, you can often encourage questions simply by pausing whenever they appear confused and even by saying, "I see you have some questions, what are they?"

Stimulate class participation. Undergraduate students appreciate the opportunity to engage in well-planned class discussion and class activities. Students are not likely to be stimulated by general questions such as "What reactions do you have to the reading?" or "What ideas from the large lecture class do we need to review today?" Undergraduates report that "sometimes we don't know what it is that we don't know." Thus, if you want students to participate in your class, you need to use various strategies to stimulate their participation. In some instances, you might highlight important information from their reading or from the large lecture class to help them identify areas where they need additional explanation. In other cases, you might have them write briefly or participate in small group exercises as a way of helping them identify their needs and focus their thoughts prior to their active participation in your class. An exchange of ideas of all sorts is a natural part of an academic environment and students need to feel comfortable with this exchange, not threatened by it. A lot of their comfort, however, depends on your creating a nurturing environment and clarifying your expectations for participation.

6. Enthusiasm

Enthusiasm comes with confidence, excitement about the subject, and pleasure in teaching. When undergraduates suggest that a TA is enthusiastic, they often mean that "the TA liked the subject and has a way of making us like it." Enthusiasm is conveyed in a variety of ways, including facial expressions and smiles, attentiveness to students, movement away from the podium or chalkboard, and eye contact which is long enough to observe students' expressions. It involves vocal inflections to emphasize and de-emphasize material, humor appropriate to the subject, a willingness to listen to students and to express interest in their contributions and a genuine concern for their learning.

7. Demonstrating Problem Solving

A major instructional goal in many courses is to develop students' ability to work with problems in the discipline. As a teacher you are responsible for transmitting two levels of knowledge to your students. First, and by far the most important, you need to explain how a member of your discipline perceives the situation and brings order to a maze of raw data. By the time you become a teacher you have taken a substantial number of courses in your discipline and have internalized your discipline's perspective on the world. In contrast your students are just beginning to learn the material and might have a naive-that is to say a non-disciplinary-view of the problem. Second, you need to explain how these general principles apply to the specific case covered by a particular problem.

Therefore, your job is to explain how you as a representative of your discipline's thinking approach the problem, from general conceptualization to specific procedures. An appropriate teaching technique might involve your demonstrating a problem's solution by systematically explaining the rationale for every step in a solution. Alternatively, you may opt for more active participation by your students and ask members of the class to take the lead and explain how they perceive the problem. Still greater student participation can be achieved by dividing the class into small groups (3 or 4) and having group members take turns in leading a discussion on solving the problem. The group's solutions can then be checked in a general class-wide session which you as the instructor lead. A little practice will help you decide which technique works best for the material to be covered and the students in your class.

The literature on teaching problem solving commonly presents a two phased model for resolving problems. Phase one, known as representation, involves an analysis of the available data and an identification of the type of problem presented. The basic idea is to develop students' ability to organize data, identify the key issues, and initiate a solution to the right problem. Phase two, simply known as the solution, involves developing and implementing a coherent plan for solving the problem. It should be evident that the first phase, involving your discipline's perspective and an appropriate conceptualization of the problem, is most critical.

As a starting point for teaching the representation phase, ask students to restate the problem in their own words. It is crucial for you to understand the students' framing of the problem: what facts, definitions, procedures and concepts are students associating with the problem, and are students' conceptualizations of facts and ideas accurate? This is the time to discover, for example, that students are confusing profit with sales, or thinking of bacteria as inorganic matter, or discussing Marx's ideas only in terms of current Soviet policy.
One way to help students clarify their assumptions is to quiz them after they have read the material related to the problem. You might ask questions which require students to restate the givens of the problem ("Which of the following sentences about the material is not true?"); you might ask for a restatement of the problem's goal ("What are you being asked to find or consider?"); or you might try to diagnose their reading of individual sentences within the problem by asking students to represent each sentence based on pictures, flow charts, equations, or other metaphors ("What is another representation of the propositions in this sentence?").

A second aspect of teaching problem representation involves asking students to bring the facts and assumptions together to characterize or categorize the problem. This can help you better explain to the students what you want them to know or do. Useful strategies to help students state the problem include: helping students separate relevant and irrelevant information ("Which number [or types of sources or facts] are needed to resolve this problem?") and representing the problem in another form ("What problems have you previously encountered which are analogous to this problem?") Once you have developed a better sense of how your students are perceiving and representing the problem, you can work with discrepancies between their representation and one you think would be more productive or precise.

When students have adequately represented the problem and examined their assumptions, they next need to develop a solution plan. To assist students in developing such a solution plan, you need to know what general model or procedure students have in mind for solving the problem. This is the point where students synthesize their relevant information and definitions to generate a solution plan for this particular problem. Useful strategies include: setting subgoals ("To answer this question, what do you need to determine?"); identifying necessary operations ("To calculate an answer, what steps do you need to take?"); and describing the interlocking steps of the argument, and drawing conclusions ("If the chromosomes look like this, then what does that tell you?").
Once the problem is represented and a solution strategy is devised, the problem solver needs to carry out the necessary operations-such as marshalling evidence or computing numerical values. These procedures and computation skills can be enhanced by practice in using different kinds of evidence to see which is most persuasive or by practicing calculations. Whether the discipline is English, History, Mathematics, Engineering, etc., the problem solver must go through essentially the same steps: represent the problem, devise a strategy for solution, and implement the strategy to produce the analysis or results.

In the final analysis, teaching such processes of problem solving requires that you make explicit for the student what may be for you automatic ways of thinking in your discipline.
Lecturing and Other Learning Activities
Research clearly indicates that when students construct knowledge from their active participation in a course, real learning and critical thinking occur. The traditional format for the transmission of knowledge in the college classroom has been the lecture, but there are numerous alternatives to the lecture for providing opportunities for students to engage actively in the construction of knowledge and to develop a perspective on the kinds of critical thought that are central to understanding that discipline.
The following section presents strengths and weaknesses of the traditional lecture format, along with several alternative approaches that encourage active student participation in course content. Instructors need to determine their purposes and goals for presentation of course material and then decide which of the approaches discussed in this section are most appropriate for the course content, course goals, and classroom environment.

II. LECTURING

1. Strengths of the Lecture Approach
2. Weaknesses of the Lecture Approach
3. How to Plan an Effective Lecture
4. Lecture: the Introduction
5. The Body of the Lecture
6. The Conclusion of the Lecture

The survival of the basic lecture-a method of teaching by discourse rather than conversation or seminar-in this age of technology and electronic media is, in many ways, remarkable. Lecturing is probably the oldest teaching method and remains the most common form of instruction to be found in United States colleges and universities, despite the fact that some research has shown that lecturing is ineffective, especially if not combined with some alternative style of teaching. As well as working to improve skills at lecturing, the instructor might also determine if the lecture approach is the best method of teaching for the achievement of the instructional goals of the class. Lecturing is very appropriate for some goals and very inappropriate for others.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Lecture Approach

1. Strengths of the Lecture Approach

1.Lectures can communicate the intrinsic interest of the subject matter. The speaker can convey personal enthusiasm in a way that no book or other media can. Enthusiasm stimulates interest, and interested, stimulated people tend to learn more.
2.Lectures in university settings can provide students with role models of scholars in action. The professor's way of approaching knowledge can be demonstrated for students to emulate.
3.Lectures can convey material otherwise unavailable, including original research or recent developments that have not yet made it to publication.
4.Lectures can organize material in a special way. They may provide a faster, simpler method of presenting information to an audience with its own special needs. Lectures are particularly useful for students who read poorly or who are unable to organize print material.
5.Lectures can convey large amounts of factual material.
6.Lectures can speak to many listeners at the same time.
7.Lectures permit maximum teacher control. The instructor chooses what material to cover, whether to answer questions, and other courses of action.
8.Lectures present minimum threat to students. They are not required to do anything, which they may prefer.
9.Lectures emphasize learning by listening, an advantage for students who learn well this way.
10.As Eble (1976) noted, lecturing beats textbooks or video in that it offers "face-to face confrontations with other talking, gesturing, thinking, feeling humans."

2. Weaknesses of the Lecture Approach

1.The lecture puts students in a passive rather than an active role. Passivity can hinder learning.
2.Lectures lack feedback to both the instructor and the student about the students' learning. They encourage one-way communication.
3.Lectures require an effective speaker who can vary tone, pitch, and pace of delivery. Lecturers must be verbally fluent, a skill that is not stressed nor learned in many PhD programs and is, in general, distributed unevenly among people.
4.Lectures place the burden of organizing and synthesizing content solely on the lecturer. They are not well suited to higher levels of learning such as application, analysis, and synthesis.
5.Lectures are not well suited to complex, detailed, or abstract material.
6.Lectures assume that all students are learning at the same pace and at the same level of understanding, which is hardly ever true.
7.Lectures do not sustain student attention, which wanes very quickly in l to 25 minutes.
8.Lectures tend to be forgotten quickly.

3. How to Plan an Effective Lecture

Instructors might remember that the learners' minds are not blank slates, and the organization of the lecture must take into account the students' existing knowledge and expectations as well as the structure of the subject matter. L. Dee Fink (1989) has pointed out that the most intellectually alive and exciting lecturers tend to be those who view knowledge as a dynamic process rather than a static product.
Phil Martin, coordinator of Ohio State's public speaking team, has suggested that a good way to approach the preparation of a lecture is to follow this progression of steps, answering a variety of questions along the way:

1.Select a topic. The lecturer's first decision should be on the overall subject matter of the lecture. This will probably be drawn from whatever is on the syllabus for that day's class.
2.Decide on the purpose. Once the topic is chosen, the next stage is to decide why it is being taught (this is not as obvious as it may first appear). Possible questions might be: Is my aim to make students understand this difficult concept? What are the key facts I want my students to remember? Do I want to advocate a particular idea or behavior? Is one of my purposes to entertain? Is preparation for an examination the main point of the lecture?

3.Analyze the class. Just as performers need to know their audience, so lecturers need to analyze their class. It is useful to determine: What is the level of students in this class? How mature are they as learners? What is their prior relationship (if any) with this subject matter? By exploring the population of the class, it may also be possible to predict what learning styles will be preferred by this group of students.

4.Analyze the occasion. In addition to studying the composition of the class, it is also helpful to analyze the occasion before preparing each lecture. A class early in the morning, for example, might require the lecturer to be more extroverted, in order to wake the students up. Long class periods may be especially suited to an interactive lecture. Students at the beginning of the semester may be more enthusiastic than during the last week of classes. These issues can be predicted in advance, and such an awareness will usually improve the effectiveness of the lecture.

5.Gather materials. After all this analysis, the next step is to gather the materials to be used in the preparation of the lecture. It is a good idea to bring everything together before sitting down to write, so that the instructor has all the necessary sources immediately at hand.

6.Prepare the lecture. After the materials are together, the next step is to actually write the lecture itself. Some discussion of what form of lecture notes is most appropriate follows, but it is certainly desirable for lecturers to have done sufficiently detailed preparation to be entirely comfortable with the content of the lecture.

7.Practice the lecture. Finally, it is a good idea to practice the lecture, whether to a living audience or an inanimate object (e.g., cassette tape, audiotape), especially if the lecturer is inexperienced. This will help phrasing and delivery and will perhaps provide some advance feedback. Here are some further suggestions for the contents of an effective lecture.

4. Lecture: the Introduction

It is advisable to plan an introduction that might point to a gap in the students' knowledge or challenge or raise a question about something in the students' minds in order to arouse curiosity. Good introductions also may help students to discriminate between more and less important features of lectures, may help them create realistic expectations about what they are supposed to learn from the lecture, and enable them to allocate their information-processing capability much more effectively. The aim, in short, is to capture the interest of the listener. As with a good drama, effective lectures "hook" their listeners' attention from the start.
Suggestion: Raising a question to be answered by the end of the hour.
Example: By the end of the hour you should be able to answer the
question "Are lectures better than discussions"
Suggestion: Explaining the relationship of the lecture content to professional career interests, the real world, etc.
Example: Today's lecture is about the cost of living indices, a topic in macroeconomics that should help you understand the recent discussions in Congress related to inflation.
Suggestion: Relating lecture content to previous class material.
Example: For the past week we've been occupied with the history of the live theater. Today, we'll be looking at film history, and we'll spend the rest of the week comparing the two forms.
Suggestion: Telling students how they are expected to use the lecture material.
Example: Today, I'll offer a specific model of evaluation and illustrate its application in several different kinds of settings. When you meet in your discussion groups later this week, you'll be asked to apply the model as you discuss the Brown vs. the Board of Education decision.
Some other ways to start a lecture include: telling a personal anecdote or telling a relevant funny story or joke; providing an overview of the lecture; and giving the lecture an intriguing title.

5. The Body of the Lecture

In the body, instructors can allow for some flexibility in the amount of content to be presented in order to respond to students' questions and comments. It is imperative for the lecturer to determine the key points to be developed during the class session, and not to present nuances and minute detail to the extent that students lose sight of the main idea. Instructors should not feel pressed to cover everything, as an effective lecture uses varied pacing to help students to make some critical discriminations between important concepts and trivia. Many researchers suggest that the individual lecture should cover only four or five main points that are made explicit to the students. The body of the lecture must, of course, be well organized. Organizing the lecture can be done in a number of different ways; the most appropriate will depend on the subject itself as well as the lecturer's personal approach. Here are some examples:

Cause and effect: Events are cited and explained by reference to their origins.
Example: One can demonstrate how the continual revolutionary movements of the late 1700s affected British politics at the turn of the century.
Time sequential: Lecture ideas are arranged chronologically.
Example: If lecturing about the steps in a clinical suspension model, talk about the initial step to be taken, the second step, and so forth.
Using an organizational idea to structure the lecture.
Example: Today we'll view all these methods from a perspective of validity.
There are many other organizational possibilities. One can state a problem and then offer alternative solutions; arrange lecture topics according to their importance, familiarity, or complexity; or offer a two-sided "compare and contrast" presentation.
Examples should be included in the lecture. Almost all writers agree that illustrations help people to understand things.
Lecturers might try to provide a break in the information output every 10 minutes or so to maintain attention. These are good times for anecdotes, visuals, humor, questions, and the like.
The body of the lecture can help the students understand the way in which the points are organized. After stating major points verbally, it is a good idea to put them on a handout or write them on a board or an overhead projector. Complex points are easier to explain if the instructor: uses an appropriate vocabulary level; uses a variety of illustrations; includes essential content before "nice to know" content; and restates points after illustrations.
Illustrations or examples will work best if they include some of the following qualities:
precision (fit the idea well); relevance (fit the context well); ingenuity; interest; novelty; humor; and scholarship.

6. The Conclusion of the Lecture

McKeachie (1986) says that in the conclusion of the lecture one has the opportunity to make up for any lapses in the body of the lecture. He also notes that encouraging students to formulate questions by asking questions oneself can facilitate memory and understanding. The prospect of unanswered questions to be treated in future lectures creates anticipation of the future. Other possibilities include:
Restating the main points by using a new example, asking for the main points, and showing where the class is now.
Asking a student to summarize the lecture's key ideas.
Restating what students are expected to have gained from the lectures.
Instructors can stimulate discussion and increase interaction after presenting a lecture or large amount of content by pairing up students and giving them two to three minutes to react, respond and raise questions or issues about the material just presented. They can ask for volunteers to report out what were the issues or questions raised in their dyads.
Another option for broadening the circle of discussions is to call on pairs that include individual members of social groups (e.g. women students, students of color, etc.) who may not be getting much "air-time."
A final point: Lecturers should not let students pressure them (by packing bags, talking, or moving around) into cutting the lecture short! Herr (1984) suggests that instructors make "a remark designed to refocus student attention: (With a smile) "You have four more minutes for which you have paid, and I shall end promptly, so just wait to grab your back packs." Another trick for the end of class is the creation of suspense, which can be accomplished in a variety of ways such as posing a question. One should make sure that there is no consistent verbal or nonverbal cue signaling the end of class, which will cause students to lose attention. Such a cue might be the return to the podium, the gathering of papers, etc.

IV. ACTIVE LEARNING: DISCUSSION, WRITING AND PERFORMANCE

"To have knowledge is to make it, to construct it, not to record, absorb, or memorize it.
Teaching is not simply telling" (Martin Bickman).

Traditional metaphors for learning that depict a student as an empty vessel or a blank slate to be filled with knowledge are reflected in classroom practices that call for the teacher to be active and the student passive. The lecture is the standard method of instruction in higher education, reinforcing-the notion of knowledge as a product to be passed from a teacher to a student. These metaphors and practices have exerted a strong influence on the ways in which we think of teaching and learning in the college classroom. Studies of classrooms show repeatedly that nearly 90 percent of time in college classrooms is filled with teacher talk.
Recently, new challenges to traditional practices and ways of thinking about learning have been raised. National reports criticizing higher education have called for the use of instructional strategies that more actively engage students in learning and help them to acquire better skills in writing, speaking, thinking critically, and solving problems. Cognitive scientists are arguing for new conceptions of learning, emphasizing that knowledge is not passed intact from a knower to a learner, but is actively constructed by learners who draw on their previous knowledge, mental processes, and experience to integrate new information into their knowledge base in ways that expand their knowledge and influence subsequent learning.
This section will talk about ways in which instructors can engage students actively through integrating instructional strategies into a lecture or using them as stand-alone methods. The main focus will be on speaking, writing, laboratory and clinical instruction, and other strategies for active engagement.

1. Leading Effective Discussions

A highly effective way of promoting active engagement in learning is to provide opportunities for students to verbalize what they are learning in the class room. Instructors are thus able to provide the feedback that is such an important part of the learning process at the time when it is most needed.
Discussion techniques are one way to get students to verbalize what they are learning. In addition, discussions can provide a socializing mechanism, examine and clarify confusing concepts, and raise value questions. Discussions can be invaluable for any of the following goals of instruction:
1.To help students learn to think in ways that are particular to the discipline;
2.To help students learn to identify and evaluate the logic and evidence that forms the basis of their own and others' positions;
3.To give students opportunities to formulate applications of principles;
4.To help students identify, formulate, and solve problems using information gained from readings, lectures, and or life experiences;
5.To use the resources of members of the group;
6.To gain acceptance for information or theories counter to previous beliefs of students;
7.To develop motivation for further learning; and
8.To get prompt feedback on how well objectives are being attained.

2. Setting Discussion Objectives
Well-defined objectives are an important prerequisite to a good discussion. They also help determine the kind of discussion appropriate for the situation. It helps to view discussions along a continuum from targeted discussions, where the instructor carefully controls the discussion and asks questions requiring specific responses, to open ended discussions, where the instructor allows the students to formulate the questions and control the discussion. If the objective is to assess students' comprehension of course material or review or summarize content, targeted discussions will serve best. If the objective is to promote critical thinking, curiosity about the topic, or tolerance for opposing viewpoints, open-ended discussions are most appropriate.
A key difference between a targeted and open-ended discussion is the kind of question asked. Questions asked in a targeted-discussion are often structured to produce short, convergent responses. Questions in an open-ended discussion provide more latitude for response. Some examples follow:

Targeted questions:
What is the definition of an adjective?
What are the stages of cell division?

Open Ended Questions: What are some ways we might solve the energy crisis?
Given the medical data before you, how would you go about diagnosing this patient's problem?
In targeted discussions, the instructor wants to keep a fairly tight rein on the direction. In addition to using convergent questions, other ways in which the instructor can focus the discussion include intervening after each response to comment upon it, summarize it, or redirect the question; mapping the direction of the discussion on the blackboard or overhead transparency; limiting the duration and number of responses; and moving quickly from one question to another. In contrast, the instructor in an open-ended discussion would act differently, using broader questions, allowing ample time to respond, encouraging a lateral rather than teacher directed response pattern, e.g., "Does anyone have a comment on X's response?" or "Feel free to jump in and respond to each other"; and reducing his or her role as authority by sitting down or remaining quiet.

Although the type of discussion questions must be tied to the purpose of the discussion, there are findings to indicate that questions that are middle-range in their openness elicit the highest quality of frequency of response. John Andrews writes, "Perhaps the most important quality to grasp is a subtle blend of structure and freedom which gives a discussion momentum and yet does not let it wander indiscriminately" (1980, p. 147). In a study of questioning behaviors, he found that when instructors used what he called "playground" questions, questions that designate the intellectual sphere for discussion and then give students latitude for answering, they got better results than when they asked very open-ended 'brainstorming" questions, convergent "quiz show" questions, or highly unfocused "general invitation" questions, such as "So what do you think about Plato?"

3. Building Rapport

Perhaps nothing is more important to a good discussion than good rapport between instructor and students. Some behaviors that promote the establishment of good rapport include:
Willingness to share personal experiences
Willingness to admit uncertainties
Openness to new ideas
Ability to suspend one's judgment of others
Ability to listen carefully to others' statements
Tolerance of opposite points of view
Many students test the waters to see how their ideas will be accepted; if the instructor lacks sensitivity, they may become unwilling to contribute. This section will explore some ways to build rapport and avoid damaging it.

4. Opening Session

Students look for clues to an instructor's temperament and orientation in a number of ways on the first day. Instructors who emphasize that discussion will be an important part of the course influence students' expectations. Some instructors go on to define the criteria for receiving full credit for class participation, including such items as "integration of class experiences and materials, the development of pertinent ideas, insights, or points of view, the sharing of exemplary experiences, asking of crucial questions, or building on provocative points made by others" (Barnes-McConnell, 1978, p. 67).
But perhaps the most important ways to build rapport on the first day are more subtle. In order to set up a supportive environment, some instructors start the first day with activities designed to break the ice and get students used to speaking in front of the group. In a smaller class, they might ask students to share their names, home towns, academic majors, and/or a question they would like the course to answer. Some instructors have students break up into pairs and share this information with each other. In larger courses instructors might ask the same questions, only using a show of hands, e.g., "How many of you are from central Ohio? How many from the South?" Instructors get the best results when they offer personal information about themselves to get the discussion rolling. They might, for example, talk about their personal and professional backgrounds or their initial experiences with the discipline.

5. Verbal Cues
During a course the instructor can promote an atmosphere of trust and rapport by offering some of the following questions or comments:
1.Can you think of a situation in which this notion might apply? Might not apply?
2.That's an interesting idea, tell me more.
3.I don't know either, but that's a very interesting question. Can anyone help us unravel ourselves here?
4.I'm not sure I understand. Were you saying that the survey questions were too personal? Can you give me an example?
5.Feels to me like we've kind of strayed from the point. Have we?
6.Let's not forget the basic problem we're trying to solve.
7.What's the first step?

6. Nonverbal Cues

Nonverbal ways in which an instructor can create rapport during a discussion include:
Showing enthusiasm when listening to student responses by smiling expectantly and nodding as the student talks.
Keeping eye contact with the student who is talking.
Walking toward the person who is talking, even if there is only space to take a few steps in any direction.
Walking around the room throughout a discussion so that students will view people in different parts of the room.
Looking relaxed by leaning against the wall, sitting on a desk, or pulling up a desk or chair and joining the class.
Arranging students' chairs in a circle or in a configuration in which they can see each other talking.

7. Getting Discussions Started
There are many different techniques for leading discussions, from the most nondirective to the most programmed. Here are some ways to get discussions moving:
Start with a common experience. One of the best ways to start a discussion is to provide a concrete, common experience through the presentation of a demonstration, film, or role playing. Following such a presentation it is often easy to ask a relatively open question such as, "What are your immediate reactions?" or "Does anything in this film disturb you?"

8. Start with a question. The range of questions is listed in the section above on setting objectives. Questions that speak well to students' puzzles can be obtained by asking students to submit written questions in advance of the session. Once the first question has been asked and responded to, further questions come easily. The trick is to phrase the first question as well as possible. In general, instructors may:

1.Use open questions to begin long discussions.
2.Wait at least 10 seconds before rephrasing the question. Instructors rarely wait long enough for student responses.
3.Offer an example if the problem you have posed appears too abstract.
When referring back to ground rules on sharing "air-time" doesn't work, instructors can share their own observations of the discussion patterns (e.g., men dominating or interrupting women) with the class and pose the analysis of the pattern as a class project. Another option is to assign students as process observers (on a rotating basis) and then save time at the end of class for them to report out their observations.

9. Start with a controversy.
One of the best ways to create a hot discussion is to pose a controversial issue and ask by a show of hands how many students take one side or the other (e.g., "how many of you feel that . . . is true? How many feel it is false?"). To control the discussion, ask for five statements of evidence or argument from each side, then statements of rebuttal. Write these statements on the board. One of the easiest ways to create controversy is to play devil's advocate when a class comes too quickly to agreement on a complex issue. Students should be later informed that the position was taken for purposes of discussion.
Place students in buzz groups. In this procedure, classes are split into subgroups for a brief discussion of a problem. Groups can be asked to come up with one hypothesis that they see as relevant, with one application of a principle, or an example of a point. In order to make this method effective, students must be given a clear task and a definite amount of time in which to do it and asked to use their responses in a follow-up discussion with the class as a whole.
Ask for responses in writing. One excellent way to get discussions going is to ask students to respond to the question you wish answered in writing. Usually five minutes is enough time for students to prepare their answers. Encourage them to be creative by using the writing as a chance to brainstorm. Then invite oral responses. Often quiet students will speak up if they have the words before them. Also, written responses often lead to more reflective discussions.

10. Ground Rules
Ground rules can be a way of having students take ownership of the concept of co-creating a classroom environment conducive to learning. By gaining class consensus on ground rules from the outset, teachers can be assured of student support and participation in their enforcement. Four suggested ground rules are:

a. Participation. Rather than generalize and say "those people" or "don't you think," instructors can encourage students to use "I" statements and speak their own experience. Personalizing discussion invites diverse perspectives from students who often find themselves on the fringe of university life, such as gay, lesbian, and bisexual students; nontraditional-age students; and students of color. Instructors can ask students who know they tend to monopolize discussions to self-monitor and make room for quieter students. At the same time, instructors can encourage students who tend to be quieter to contribute to enhancing the learning by sharing their perspectives and experiences.

b. Confidentiality. Instructors can encourage students to take concepts and ideas from class and discuss them freely; however, they should suggest that personal stories or issues raised by individuals are to be kept confidential and the property of the class.

c. Respectful listening. If an instructors demonstrates that s/he is a good listener, s/he can encourage students to raise questions. Instructors can point out that if someone raises a point that others disagree with or find offensive, it is important to remember that the human being behind that question or comment deserves respect.

d.No zaps. Tied to the notion of respect is the ground rule of no put-downs in class, not even the humorous variety called "zaps." To "zap" one person often serves to discourage open and honest exchange of ideas among the whole group.

11. Maintaining Discussions

Maintaining discussions often means dealing as smoothly as possible with the problems that arise. Here are some common problems with suggestions for how to deal with them:
The student who talks too much. A way to approach the avid talker and pull in nonparticipants is to avoid looking in the direction of the persister or to structure the discussion in a way that precludes that person's participation, e.g.,"Let's hear from someone who has not yet contributed." Instructors might also ask one or more members of the class to act as observers for a few class periods, reporting back their observations to the class. Perhaps assigning the avid talker to the observer role would help sensitivity. Another technique is to talk to the student individually outside of class.

The student who won't talk. Instructors need to set clear expectations for participation. It is also important to reinforce participation. A way to approach nonparticipants is to provide opportunities for small group discussions. Smaller groups may help put some students more at ease. A second strategy is to occasionally ask opinion questions (e.g., "How do you feel about this?"). This may encourage participation by reducing students' fear of answering incorrectly. Another strategy is to have students write out their answers to a question. Having the words written out may make it easier for a shy or fearful person to speak up.
The discussion that turns into an argument. In good discussions conflicts will often arise. If such conflicts are left ambiguous, they may cause continuing trouble. Here are some ways to resolve them:

1.If the solution depends on certain facts, the instructor can ask students to refer to the text or another authority.
2.If there is an experimentally verified answer, the instructor can use the opportunity to review the method by which the answer could be determined.
3.If the question is one of values, the instructor may use the occasion to help students become aware of the values involved.
4.The instructor can list both sides of the argument on the board.
5.The instructor can take a strong position as moderator, preventing students from interrupting each other or speaking simultaneously. She or he can lay ground rules for discussion, such as asking students to focus conflict on ideas rather than people and to resist being judgmental.
Unclear or hesitant comments. The instructor can encourage students making unclear contributions to give examples or restate points for verification or rejection by that student, encourage hesitant comments by enthusiastic nonverbal cues and patience, or asking for elaboration and examples at appropriate points.
The discussion that goes off track. Some instructors keep discussions on track by listing the questions or issues they want to cover on the board or summarizing the discussion on the board as it proceeds. Stopping and asking a student to summarize where the discussion is at the point it appears to go off track may also help.

12. The student who attacks the instructor.
When students argue for the sake of argument, instructors will almost always lose if they take the bait. This situation often occurs when instructors are going over exams or assignments. Students who attack usually want attention, so simply giving them some recognition while firmly moving on often takes care of the problem. If students are simply trying to embarrass the instructor, they may seek to make him or her defensive with such comments as, "How do you really know that . . . ?" or "You're not really saying that . . . ?" Such questions can be handled by playing boomerang. The instructor might say, "What I'm saying is . . ., but now I'd like you to share your perspective." Turning the question back to the questioner forces him or her to take responsibility for his or her opinion. Other ways to handle these situations include:

a. Confrontation. Instructors can confront the questioner with their reactions to his or her behavior. "I'm uncomfortable with the indirectness of your questions. What I really hear you saying is ...."

b. Active listening. Instructors can paraphrase the message they heard and check out the accuracy of their assumptions before responding.
c. Locating. Instructors can ask the questioner to explain the context behind the question.
d. Reframing. The focus can be on clarifying the assumptions behind the person's argument and then inviting her or him to see alternative possibilities. "Your argument is premised on the idea that people cannot be trusted. How would you restructure your position to reflect the assumption that people can be trusted?"
e. Deferring. Often, the best strategy is to invite students to come up after class and arrange for a time to talk about the disagreement further.
f. Creating Closure

Good discussions end with a summary so that students know what important points were covered. The advantage of active learning techniques such as the discussion is that students have the opportunity to verbalize course materials for themselves and receive feedback in class from the instructor on how well they understand that material. In addition to showing students why the discussion was important to their learning, a summary provides the opportunity to fill in points that weren't covered and praise the class for the quality of their responses.

V. INCORPORATING WRITING IN INSTRUCTION

1. Reading Journals
2. Learning Logs
3. The Precis.
4. Brainstorming/Freewriting
5. Inkshedding
6. Written Conversation
7. Papers

Recently, writing has been recognized as an important vehicle through which people not only communicate ideas but also generate them. Writing, then, can be used as an inherent part of learning, creating occasions for students to fit new information into their existing knowledge structure and to expand their ways of thinking. The importance of writing in the thinking process implies that writing should occur in courses throughout the curriculum, a belief that is implicit in the new curriculum revisions at MSU and elsewhere. The development of writing skills has been recognized as an essential accomplishment of a college graduate for which all instructors, not only those in English departments, have responsibility.

Many instructors, feeling that they have not had specialized training in the teaching of writing, are uneasy about the role they are being asked to play. They are also reluctant to add the grading of great amounts of written work to their existing work load. Fortunately, experts in the field are able to provide reassurance on both counts. The emphasis on writing as process stresses the role of the instructor as a facilitator of the thinking process rather than as "guardian of the semicolon," the technical expert on points of grammar. Suggestions for setting and responding to writing assignments in ways that engage students without creating excessive burdens on the instructor are also available.
They revolve around two main thoughts:

1.Writing assignments need not be formal or lengthy.
Writing as a medium for actively engaging students in learning can be used as a tool for discovery and understanding in an ongoing way that is integral to course activities; for example, an instructor might ask students to take a minute to write down their ideas before they respond to a question posed in class. The instructor might ask the students to write a short summary of what they learned in class or any questions that they still have about the material after class. Good writing assignments are meaningful, related to the goals of the course, clearly defined, and practical for both student and instructor.

2.Not all written work needs to be graded. In fact, instructors who set only formal written assignments to be graded perpetuate the notion that writing is only an end product of learning, rather than a tool to be used in the process. Writing can be incorporated into the class to serve several different functions, including a feedback and class management tool for the instructor; a way of having students reflect back on their learning, themselves, and their audience; and a means of sharpening students' written skills.
As a feedback device, the instructor can employ an anonymous one-minute reaction paper at the end of class or after a particularly intense discussion to solicit input and to test for understanding. The results can be reported back to the class at the next session and/or incorporated into the course design.

Journals can help students reflect back on unresolved questions and conflicts raised for them in class and they can also assist students to see how they have grown during the life of the course. These journals can also serve to personalize the classroom learning if they are turned in periodically or midterm for instructor comment or response.
Finally, writing can help students see issues from diverse perspectives by stretching them to write with the perspective of the "other" in mind.
To incorporate writing as an integral part of the learning process, instructors can suggest a variety of ways in which students can write as the course progresses. Ways that have been used effectively across courses include:

Reading Journals
Instructors can suggest that students keep journals to chronicle their understanding of texts that they are reading for class. Students can be encouraged to write entries that reflect the main idea of the reading, major points that are covered, and the questions that they have after reading the text. To increase the level of cognitive activity involved in the reading assignments, instructors can suggest that students write about possible applications of the ideas, ways in which the material fits with other course readings and information, and their critical evaluations of the merit of the ideas or readings. Instructors may elect to review these journals periodically, reacting to points that they find particularly interesting, or they may view the journals as personal aids to scholarship for the use of the students alone.

Learning Logs
Learning logs are a specific kind of reading journal in which students are asked to structure their reading responses in dual columns in their notebooks. Students are asked to divide a paper in half, to list key concepts in the left half as they read the text, and to write their responses to the concepts in the right half, continuing the process through the text. Learning logs help students become more aware of text organization, more ready to participate in class discussion, and more capable of formulating ideas for their own writing.

The Precis
Instructors can ask students to write a very brief summary of the major points of a reading assignment or class session. Often, they may wish to specify a certain word limit, such as 25 words, in order to stretch students' language skills and cause further reflection on the material. Once again, these may be collected-they may serve as an attendance check or to motivate students to keep up with their reading-or they may be used only to help focus a discussion or for the students' personal use. When collected, they may be graded very quickly. Elaborate comments do not have to be given if the precis paragraphs are viewed as formative documents.

Brainstorming/Freewriting
Instructors can ask students to jot down ideas very quickly in response to a given problem or stimulus. They should be encouraged to focus on generating ideas rather than worrying about the format that their writing takes. Brainstorming can be used prior to the introduction of new material to enhance discovery and curiosity. Instructors can ask students to guess the causes of a historical phenomenon before these are discussed in class; they may ask students to predict the results of a scientific experiment before it is demonstrated. The lists that result can be shared in groups or in class before the material is formally discussed. Brainstorming and freewriting can also be used as effective summarizing techniques. Students may be asked to compose "laundry lists" of things to remember when diagnosing a certain virus or characteristics of abstract art. They can compare lists.

Inkshedding
Students are asked to spend a few minutes writing in response to a particular question related to a reading assignment in the course. Then students exchange papers and read the other person's comment, continuing this exchange for several papers. The instructor then asks students to report on what they found out or on what patterns they saw in the papers they read as the basis for a discussion. This strategy allows students to participate in a class discussion by building on the accumulating knowledge from reading other people's responses. It helps students share information and knowledge in a non-threatening way and to discover in the process similar and different interpretations of the material that will increase their own understanding of the issue being discussed.

Written Conversation
The instructor asks students to list at the top of a blank sheet of paper one question they would like to have discussed related to the reading assignment for the day. Students read each other's questions and write responses to them, passing them on for further comment from other class members. Students are encouraged to respond not only to the original question but to other class members' responses to that question so that a written conversation begins to emerge. This strategy is useful in helping students understand the nature of the questions that other students have, and it provides a means of responding in a non-threatening way to a wide range of questions and issues that increase opportunities for critical thought.

Papers
Although the formal term paper can be a valuable learning activity for many courses, some instructors who once gave their students long research papers are discovering that assigning one or more five-page papers, usually requiring some sort of analysis of ideas or readings, is easier to evaluate and more useful for their students' learning. To focus students' work, it is helpful to pose direct question, e.g., "What problems do sociologists encounter in defining 'deviance'?," and convey as clearly as possible the instructor's expectations concerning the appropriate style and tone of the writing, the desired length, and the kind of documentation required. Exemplary papers from past offerings of the course can be made available for students to refer to. If the assignment calls for prescribed format, such as a laboratory report, an outline of the format or examples of good lab reports will help the students. Students may also be encouraged to look in scholarly journals in the discipline for examples of writing to use as models. When longer papers are assigned, instructors have found that requiring drafts in advance of the final paper helps students to pace themselves better and gives the instructor a chance to provide direction while the ideas are still in process so at the resulting final papers are of higher quality. Drafts also give instructors the opportunity to note stylistic and grammatical problems for students to correct so that they learn about writing while they are engaged in a specific revision task, rather than in the abstract.

IV. INSTRUCTING RECITATION and LAB SECTIONS

1. Working with the Instructor of Record
2. Lectures and Textbooks
3. Day-to-day Section Instruction

Though some of you will have considerable responsibility for your own course, many of you will be instructing one or more sections offered in conjunction with a large lecture course. In this section of the handbook, we attempt to anticipate your specific concerns and give you suggestions for conducting effective sections.

1. Working with the Instructor of Record

The professor of record may have very definite expectations about how you should instruct your session. This professor might even give you an instructor syllabus which you are expected to follow, which includes problems to solve, instructional goals, etc. On the other hand, the professor may expect you to develop the agenda/materials to complement the class. In order to plan your semester, it is important that you meet with the professor to ask specific questions about the course, grading procedures, and your responsibility in lecture and in sections. The following is a list of questions you may want to approach the instructor of record with before the class starts:

Will you be expected to solve problems and answer questions about the lecture in sections?
Should you develop a section syllabus?
Will you be expected to supplement the lectures with entirely new material?
Will you have any lecture responsibilities in addition to leading your section?
Will you design your own tests or read and grade tests written by the professor?
Will you read term papers?
Will you tutor students who need help beyond what you would normally offer during office hours?
How does the professor want issues of conflict handled?
Some professors hold weekly meeting with their TAs during the semester to discuss problems and plan strategies and assignments for the coming week. Others wait for you to approach them with questions or problems.

2. Lectures and Textbooks

It is generally expected that you will attend the professor's lecture unless informed otherwise. This allows you to know what it is you are supplementing and clarifying for the students. Even when you know the subject thoroughly, you will be unprepared for sections unless you know which problems were covered in class, the professor's approach, etc.
Listening from a student's perspective will help you understand why students feel overwhelmed, bored or confused during lectures. Similarly, reading textbooks from a student's perspective will help you decide which topics need the most review. Some "introductory" texts were written for a tenth grade audience, while others will baffle even you. Read everything your students are expected to read; it's better to be baffled in your office than embarrassed in class. If, however, you are asked a question in section which you are unable to answer, be honest with the student. Tell them you will check with the professor or you will consult a text and address the question in the next section.

3. Day-to-day Section Instruction

There are many ways to approach section instruction, depending on the information you gather from the professor of record. If you are given an open ended assignment, you may want to consider the suggestions about problem solving given in the preceding section. Of general concern, however, is how well the students are interacting with the lecture material. This will indicate what you need to focus on in sections, if your section goals are not already mapped out by the professor. If you find that students are having difficulty with the lecture materials and they are unable to complete the professor's section goals, you should inform the professor and see how s/he would like to proceed. The professor may choose to adjust the level of examinations and the pace of the course as necessary.
It is essential that you identify what needs to be covered and then choose an appropriate approach. Is the material suitable for a section lecture? A question answer session? A discussion? Rather than repeating the professor's lecture, consider a new approach to the topic. Perhaps you need to break a large topic into smaller units, or design a problem-solving session which encourages students to both conceptualize the approach and utilize it.
If you chief responsibility is review, it is especially important to get feedback on whether you are covering what students feel they really need. It is impossible to review all the material from the lecture or the textbook in detail. You will have to choose between covering most of the material somewhat superficially or only representing parts in depth. Briefly reviewing all the important topics usually stimulates student questions. However, concentrating on particularly difficult aspects of the course that may not have received much time in the lecture will open up areas on which students would otherwise not have been able to formulate questions.

VI. PLANNING AND SUPERVISING A LABORATORY

1. Instructor Preparation
2. Safety
3. Student Preparation
3. Supervising the Experiment

Labs are offered in conjunction with large lecture sources so that students may acquire technical skills and apply concepts and theories presented in lecture. This hands-on experience encourages students to develop a spirit of inquiry and allows them to develop some appreciation of the scientific method.

1. Instructor Preparation
The best way to prepare for labs is to conduct the experiment yourself with the students' lab manual in hand. You'll discover whether the directions are clear and whether students have the skills necessary to complete the experiment. Jot down notes as you proceed so that you can tell students how long the experiment will take, clarify confusing passages, and demonstrate new or difficult procedures. If you know in advance what to expect, what problems students are likely to encounter and what questions they will ask, you will be able to make much better use of you time in the lab. It is important to make sure that you have enough beakers, stations, chemicals, etc. ready before the lab begins.

2. Safety
Check with your department about university and national safety guidelines. Make sure students are aware of appropriate safety considerations and steps. Check to see that appropriate signage is posted in the lab.

3. Student Preparation
In conjunction with the professor, devise some means to ensure that students are familiar with the lab before they come to class. Some instructors feel that grades on lab reports are incentive enough, while other require student to submit a statement of purposes and procedures or an explanation of what and how the experiment is relevant to the course.

3. Supervising the Experiment
At the beginning of the lab, review the purposes and procedures of the experiment. You might deliver a brief lecture on how the experiment relates to current developments in the discipline, or you might discuss the students' statements of objectives. Ask for questions, clarify any ambiguities in the lab manual, and demonstrate special procedures now rather than interrupt the experiment later.
If both you and your students are well prepared, you will be free to perform your most important role, that of guiding the students' development. Try to talk with each student at least once during the experiment. Technical and procedural matters can be handled quickly in a few words of advice or a very brief demonstration, but your primary role is to help students master the steps of scientific inquiry-recognizing and stating a problem so that it can be explored, data collected, a hypothesis formed and tested, and a conclusion drawn.
Attempt to allow students to solve problems for themselves. Perhaps you rephrase the question and remind them of a concept they have forgotten. However you approach problem solving, refrain from giving outright answers or advice. If lab partners ask, "Why can't we get this to come out right?" try asking a series of questions which leads them to discover the reasons for themselves rather than simply explaining why the experiment failed. Sometimes the reason will be relatively simple, but just as often the reason will be more substantial-a matter of timing, sequence, proportion or interpretation. Perhaps the student has the necessary data but has overlooked an important step in analyzing the results or is unable to synthesize a solution. It is very tempting to help students by saying, "Aha, I see where you went wrong," but unless you resist the temptation, they are likely to falter at the same stage in the next experiment. Students may become frustrated if they can't get an easy answer out of you, but they will also learn more.

VIII. OTHER STRATEGIES FOR ACTIVELY INVOLVING STUDENTS

1. Case Studies
2. Peer Learning
3. Learning Cells
4. Discovery Format
5. Role Playing
6. Class Debate
7. Simulations
Summary

1. Case Studies
Very broadly defined, a case study is a teaching instrument that portrays a real life situation for student analysis. Case studies are used frequently in professional schools to enable students to develop their skills in analyzing situations and making sound decisions. Often, a prepared case can be used, but when new cases are developed, the instructor should focus on an important dilemma or issue, create enough detail for the students to comprehend the case, and choose a situation about which there is room for debate and several possible courses of action. Students are asked to read the case before class. During the class session, the instructor first makes sure that the students understand the details of the case, then leads them through an analysis of the problem and discussion of possible alternative courses of action. The instructor serves as discussion facilitator, probing for detail, support for arguments, evidence, etc.

2. Peer Learning
Classes can be divided into groups of about five students with a mixture of more and less knowledgeable students in each group. The groups are given learning tasks that will require them to share knowledge and experiences. The task may be to answer some review questions, to pose some critical issues about a topic, to solve a problem, apply some principles, or create a product. If the groups are balanced well, the task is clearly outlined, and the allocated time is appropriate for the task, the group will engage in peer learning and increase their abilities to function in an interpersonal setting through the process. The instructor's role is to serve as designer by carefully structuring the groups and tasks and to serve as facilitator while the groups are working, helping with interpersonal or task-related problems as they arise.

3. Learning Cells
Learning cells are a variety of peer learning that can be used when it is important to have students verbalize what they have read. Reading assignments are given before class and part of class time is spent with students in pairs telling each other what they read. The students may have read the same material beforehand, in which case they are demonstrating their comprehension and recall and getting an opportunity to clarify their understanding with one another, or they may have been assigned different readings, in which case they can complement each others knowledge with some different information or perspectives.

4. Discovery Format
In a discovery or inquiry format, the instructor sets up a novel situation, an interesting puzzle, or an open-ended question that students are asked to explore using their own creativity and resources. They may be asked to hypothesize, based on only partial information, on what building materials were used to construct and ancient building; they may be asked to construct a device for measuring something or making certain musical tones; or they may be asked to interview each other about what triggers depression in their lives. The instructor once again serves as designer of the activity, choosing activities that are likely to lead students to accomplish a learning goal, and as facilitator during the process, helping students to stay on course and to locate the resources they need. In the discovery format it is important for the instructor to stay as nondirective as possible so that students develop independence and personal excitement.

5. Role Playing
In many courses, role playing can be used to develop empathy, to enliven a historical, philosophical, or literary topic, or to provide a concrete enactment of an abstract topic. Volunteers are asked to portray certain roles and given sufficient information on the context to enable them to improvise dialogue and actions. In some classes, the instructors have attended class in the role of a character and have enlisted colleagues to join them in enacting a situation for the students. The class is asked to play the role of those in the situation as well, asking questions or engaging in dialogue in ways that would be appropriate for the setting.

6. Class Debate
Using a central aisle or a real or imaginary boundary to divide the class space in half, the instructor poses a debatable proposition and asks those who agree to sit in one section and those who disagree to sit in the other. (The instructor may also want to create a third section for those who are undecided.) The instructor then moderates, asking students from one section, then the other, to support their position. At set intervals of perhaps fifteen minutes, students are given the opportunity to move to another section, based on whether they have changed their positions through listening and participating in the debate. A variant on this theme is to have students argue for the opposite of their original positions by changing the section designations after the students have already chosen positions. The instructor is responsible for setting up the proposition, enforcing the rules of the debate, and summarizing the discussion and results of the debate.

7. Simulations
Simulations allow students to engage in learning activities that may otherwise be too time consuming, too expensive, or ethically questionable (requiring animals or intervention into human behavior). Using an established game or computer software or creating a scenario, the instructor develops a simulated environment within which students will engage in activity directed toward a learning goal. They may be asked to set up companies and create mergers; they may be asked to develop marketing packages that they will present to a real or simulated client; they may be blind folded to experience sightlessness; or they may be required to recreate a military battle or other historical event using a new strategy. The role of the instructor is to identify and preview established simulations for use in the course or to create scenarios that are likely to engage students in experiential learning directed toward a course goal. During the simulation the instructor serves as a facilitator.

Summary
The particular learning strategies and activities that are selected for engaging students actively will depend on the context of the specific course and student preparation with which the strategies are employed. Given the wide variety of strategies available, however, there are ways to pervade every course with opportunities for students to become actively involved in learning during class time. In addition to increasing motivation and providing feedback at crucial points, strategies that engage students help to develop the competencies of reading, speaking, writing, critical thinking, and problem solving that are marks of the well-educated person.

IX. TEACHING WITH PROPS, VISUAL AIDS AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

1. Backboard Use
2. The following tips should help you structure your board work:
3. Preparing Visual Aids

Including technology in your classroom can be as simple as making overheads or calling IMC and/or ITV to include a film or voice recording. It can be as "involved" as interactive video and hypermedia. The level of sophistication depends on many factors: your familiarity with the technology, instructional needs, availability of equipment, etc, and your department. This section is designed, not to explain how to use technical equipment in the classroom, but instead to encourage you to access and assess the different mediums to your fullest instructional advantage.

1. Backboard Use
Think upon your experiences as a student. How many times have you looked up in class after being distracted or after losing the main thread of the lesson only to be greeted by a meaningless, randomly distributed set of symbols or facts on the blackboard? How often, after getting home have you found you notes so meaningless that it is not even clear what subject was discussed? If the answer to either question is never, you either learned to take good notes or you have a fantastic memory. The fact is, many students' notes are an exact copy of what appeared on the blackboard, with few additional qualifiers, explanations, etc. If you are skeptical, ask to see your students' notes right after class. You will be amazed that many will not differ in even a single word. If you keep this in mind, you are part way to more effective blackboard use. When we do a problem at the board, students not only see the solution, but they see how we organize a solution. Effective board work highlights and emphasizes this organization and provides the students with a valuable model for writing, and often for doing, problems. The end result of the board work accompanying a unit of the lesson should be an outline of what transpired. If you are solving a problem, an outline of the problem should remain at the end. The hypotheses, main points, and conclusion should be isolated, boxed off, or otherwise emphasized. Even the best students will occasionally lose the thread of a lesson or forget the original objective of a discussion. The blackboard is their major, and often their only, resource for reentering the lesson.

2. The following tips should help you structure your board work:
1.Start with a clean board. Boardwork from the previous class is distracting.
2.Be organized. Use headings. Before using the board, determine the major elements of your presentation. Consider how you could place them on the board for logical visual as well as verbal presentation. Keep diagrams near their written descriptions and label carefully. When solving equations, show each step in a logical sequence and mark major steps and answers.
3.Be neat. Print if at all possible-medium size. If you write too large, you will not have enough room. If you write too small, no one will be able to read it.
4.Try not to work with eraser in hand. Teacher who simplify expressions as they go along by erasing are anathema to students trying to take notes. Put a single line through expression you wish to simplify and write the new expressions above.
5.Avoid talking to the board. After you write on the board, turn to face your students before speaking. A good pattern to develop is to state the topic first, turn and write the topic name on the board, then turn back to the students and discuss the topic. When appropriate,add key points under the topic name.
6.Avoid blocking the board. Once you have finished writing, stand to one side while you discuss what you have written.
At the end of your class, take a moment to stand in the back of the classroom and examine the board. Can you reconstruct your lecture from what is written? Could students read your writing? Are diagrams labeled? If so, you are developing good boardwork skills.

3. Preparing Visual Aids

The use of overheads, graphs, charts, can be a note taking guide and a time saving aid if they are used in the most effective way. However, putting an overhead on the screen accompanied by the following comments "I know you can't see this, BUT. . ." is cause for anger and frustration.

In order to serve your students well, keep in mind the following tips:

1.The "Rule of 7'2"-Overheads and slides should be limited to:
- 7 words per line
- 7 lines per visual aid

2.18-24 point font size
3.Cartoons: Good idea, but do they illustrate a point?
4.Graphs, charts and tables from books? Blow them up!
5.Leave material you have placed on the overhead in view until students have had a chance to examine it.
6.Face students. The only time you should look at the screen is to check focusing, visibility and placement of materials. Move away from the overheads whenever possible and avoid blocking the light.
7.When writing notes or highlighting overheads, use projector pens and write legibly, perhaps using different colors to illustrate different points.
8.Get confirmation from students. Can they see everything? Did they have time to copy important steps?
On a final note, remember that visual aids, such as charts and graphs, should be used to illustrate or demonstrate a point in the lecture/discussion. The important concept being demonstrated by a visual aid may be readily apparent to you, but it is not always so for your students. On the other hand, do not simply read the chart to students. Instead, interact with it, reminding students what it demonstrates at different points.

Acknowledgements:

"Lecturing" has been reprinted, with modifications, with permission from The Ohio State University: Teaching at The Ohio State University: A Handbook. Center for Teaching Excellence, Faculty and TA Development, The Ohio State University, Revised 1992, pp.34-39.
"Active Learning: Discussion, Writing and Performance" has been reprinted, with modifications, with permission from The Ohio State University: Teaching at The Ohio State University: A Handbook. Center for Teaching Excellence, Faculty and TA Development, The Ohio State University, Revised 1992, pp. 47-54.
"Incorporating Writing in Instruction" has been reprinted, with modifications, with permission from The Ohio State University: Teaching at The Ohio State University: A Handbook. Center for Teaching Excellence, Faculty and TA Development, The Ohio State University, Revised 1992, pp. 54-56.
"Instructing Recitation and Lab Sections" has been reprinted, with modifications, with permission from the University of Washington: Mentor: A Handbook for New Teaching Assistants (Fifth Edition). Maren Halvorsen, ed. Center for Instructional Development, U of Washington, 1992, pp. 30-31.
"Planning and Supervising a Laboratory" has been reprinted, with modifications, with permission from the University of Washington: Mentor: A Handbook for New Teaching Assistants (Fifth Edition). Maren Halvorsen, ed. Center for Instructional Development and Research, U of Washington, 1992, pp. 30-31.
"Other Instructional Strategies for Actively Involving Students" has been reprinted, with modifications, with permission from The Ohio State University: Teaching at The Ohio State University: A Handbook. Center for Teaching Excellence, Faculty and TA Development, The Ohio State University, Revised 1992, pp.60-61.
"Preparing Visual Aids" was adapted from "Preparation and Delivery of Presentations," a workshop offered on behalf of ITAP by Dr. Christopher B. Reznich, Office of Medical Education and Research, MSU, September 29, 1993.

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